Title: Phys 3120
Tags: RespiratorySystem ReproductiveSystem Females Limbic

Q: [...]: [...]
A: VO2; Volume of oxygen the body utilizes

Q: [...]: [...]
- Units are L/min
- Best measure of aerobic [...]
A: VO2max; Max volume of oxygen that body can use; fitness

Q: The [...] system and [...] are alterable to increase VO2max, but the [...] system remains constant.
A: cardiovascular; muscles; respiratory

Q: VO2 = [equation]
A: Amount of oxygen inhaled - amount of oxygen exhaled

Q: Eventually, after a certain point the body cannot use any more [...] and reverts to [...] energy production.
A: O2; anaerobic

Q: Oxygen Transport
- A very minisicule amount is dissolved, due to [...], which is C = [...]
- Majority of oxygen bound to [...]
A: Henry's law; P*solubility; hemoglobin

Q: Hemoglobin has [...] subunits, each with a [...] moiety, to which [...] O2 can bind.
A: 4; heme; 1

Q: In peripheral tissue, PO2 is [...], so O2 can [...]
A: low; dissociate

Q: Sigmoidal shape of heme curve allows for [...] in the lungs and [...] to the tissue.
A: O2 binding; O2 delivery

Q: Removal/addition of [...] O2 to heme is [...], but the rest are easy
A: one; hard

Q: At higher levels of hemoglobin, PO2 is the [...], but concentration goes [...].
A: same; up

Q: A shift of the oxygen-hemoglobin curve to the [...], promotes [...]
A: right; unloading

Q: A high PCO2 shifts the hemoglobin curve to the [...]
A: right

Q: A high temperature shifts the hemoglobin curve to the [...]
A: right

Q: A high pH shifts the hemoglobin curve to the [...]
A: left

Q: lots of DPG in the blood shifts the hemoglobin curve to the [...]
A: right

Q: Exercise makes PCO2 [...], temperature [...] and pH [...], to promote unloading of oxygen
A: inc; inc; dec

Q: Carbon Dioxide Transport
- As a [...] gas
- As a [...]
- Bound to [...]
A: dissolved; bicarbonate; hemoglobin

Q: Carbon Dioxide Transport
- As a dissolved gas
- CO2 is [...] soluble in water.
A: fairly

Q: Carbon Dioxide Transport
- As a bicarbonate
- [...] of total CO2 transport.
- Bicarbonate is formed in [...] involving the enzyme [...]
A: 70%; RBCs; Carbonic anhydrase

Carbon Dioxide Transport

Carbon Dioxide Transport
- CO2 can also bind to deoxygenated Hb, when H+ has already bound.
- Thus, unloading of O2 promotes CO2 transportation.
- This is called the Haldane effect

Acid Base Balance
- Normal blood pH is 7.4
- Maintained by buffer systems and the lungs & kidneys

Q: Buffer Systems
- A substance which [...]
- In the body, they include [...], proteins and [...]
A: reversibly binds H+; bicarbonate; phosphate

Q: Acidosis
- An increase in [...] due to hypoventilation leads to the reaction being pushed to create [...]
A: CO2; H+

Q: Alkilosis
- A [...] in CO2 due to hyperventilation leads to the reaction being pushed to create [...]
A: decrease; CO2

Q: The kidneys control acid/base slowly by excreting/reabsorbing [...] and bicarbonate
A: H+

Q: Diabetes causes [alk/ac]
A: acidosis

Q: Diuretic use causes [alk/ac]
A: alkalosis

Q: The kidneys make [...] adjustments to pH.
A: minor

Q: The arteries have [...] saturated hemoglobin (O2) than the veins
A: higher

Q: The arteries have [...] saturated hemoglobin (CO2) than the veins, but not much lower since most CO2 is in form of [...]
A: lower; bicarbonate

Q: CO2-bound Hb is called [...]
A: carbamino Hb

Q: Chemoreceptors respond to a [...] in the chemical composition.
- Overtime, [...] occurs so the response by the body decreases.
A: change; adaptation

Q: Under normal circumstances, [...] has a very [...] impact on increasing ventilation.
A: PO2; small

Q: Under normal circumstances, P[...] has a very [...] impact on increasing ventilation.
A: CO2; large

Q: During exercise, PCO2, PO2 and pH [...] significantly, so it is possible [...] receptors or [...] factors change respiration.
A: do not change; muscle; neurogenic

Q: The combined response to PCO2 and PO2 is [...] than the individual responses.
A: greater

High Altitiude
Low PO2 in the lung
1) Stimulation of peripheral chemoreceptors causes inc. ventilation.
2) Inc in ventilation causes a dec in PCO2 which causes a stimulation of central chemoreceptors, which dec. ventilation.

High Altitiude
Low PO2 in the lung
3) Adaptation after long term at high altitude leads to a reduced PCO2 response.
4) Increase production of RBC

Q: Fed State
Liver
- Promotes [...]genesis
- Uptake of glucose.
- Fatty acid synthesis
- [...], to produce even more glucose?
--- Overall, still have glucose storage.
A: glyco; Gluconeogenesis

Q: Fed State
- PPARgamma is responsible for [...] in adipose tissue.
- Thus, blood glucose goes [...]
A: converting glucose into triglycerides; down

Q: Fasting State
- Protein [...] in the muscles.
- Lipo[...] in the adipose tissue.
A: catabolism; lysis

Fasting State
- Liver creates glucose, breaks down glycogen, and also breaks down fatty acids into ketone bodies.

Glucose Overnight
- Due to circulating cortisol and GH during the night, gluconeogenesis is upregulated, as well as less glucose uptake by cells.

Q: Gonadotrophin regulation of speramato and steroidogenesis
- Pulses of [...] are very important for the proper release of hormones!
- Active in the [...], then waits until [...] to begin again.
A: GnRH; fetus; puberty

Q: LH and FSH
- Since the sertoli cell is separated from the [...], the [...] receptor must project through the basal membrane.
A: blood; FSH

Q: LH and FSH
- The first step after binding to the receptor is the production of [...].
A: cAMP

LH and FSH
- FSH is responsible for promoting the production of ABP which functions to stabilize testosterone (important to have high levels!).
- Secondary functions include the transcription of androgen receptor gene and fluid release.
- ABP remains in the cell or diffuses into lumen.

Q: Negative Feedback in the Gonads
- Testosterone (Leydig cells) shuts down [...] and [...] (pulsation interference) production.
A: LH; GnRH

Q: Negative Feedback in the Gonads
- Inhibin (Sertoli cells) shuts down [...]
A: FSH

Testosterone: Systemic Effects
- Converted to DHT, which is important in utero for the development of the penis.
- Testosterone itself is involved in puberty, beard growth, muscle mass, increasing the number of RBC.

Q: Mechanism of Androgen Action
- Diffuses into cell, and activates androgen receptor to modify gene expression.
- In reproductive tissue, there tends to be more [...] signalling.
A: nonclassical/nongenomic

Q: Mechanism of Androgen Action
- DHT works the same way as testosterone, but is more [...]
A: potent

Testosterone in Medicine
- Used to treat hypogonadism, body wasting, metabolic syndrome and aging.
- Allows for signficant gains in muscle mass

Negative Effects of Testosterone
- Cardiovascular issues (blood is too viscous)
- Infertility (too little FSH/LH)
- Large prostate and small testes.
- Development of breasts (inc in estrogen levels).

Q: Female Anatomy
- Uterus: Site of [...]
A: implantation

Q: Female Anatomy
- Fallopian tubes: Passage for the [...]
A: sperm and oocytes

Q: Female Anatomy
- Overies: Produce [2]
A: eggs and hormones

Q: Female Anatomy
- Cervix: [...]
A: Entrance to the uterus

Q: Female Anatomy
- Vagina: [...]
A: Site of sperm deposition

Q: Female Anatomy
- Papsmear checks the [...]
A: cervix

Q: Reproductive Organs
- [...] extend from fallopian tube out to the ovaries.
Function to [...] in the [...] (no direct connection)
A: Fimbrae; wave; oocyte

Q: Reproductive Organs
- [...] prevent prolapse of the uterus.
A: Suspensory ligaments

Q: The Ovary
- [...]genesis, [...]genesis and [...]genesis
A: Oo; follculo; steroido

Q: The Ovary
- Follicles function to hold cells required for [...] and also package the [...] for release.
A: steroidogenesis; egg

Q: Oogenesis
- Gametes in females are made [...] and many are killed off ([...])
A: before birth; atresia

Q: Oogenesis
- Female reproduction stops at the [...] step of [...] until puberty, at which point it commences from there.
A: prophase; meiosis I

Oogenesis
- The primary oocyte is the cell which is stored after birth.
- An LH surge during puberty promotes the divison of a primary oocyte into a secondary oocyte and a polar body (drained of cytoplasm).
- The secondary oocyte will then divide into the ovum (meiosis II) only if it has been fertilized .

Q: Oogenesis
- The [...] cell of the human body, compared to the [...] cell in males (sperm).
A: largest; smallest

Q: Oogenesis
- Only one viable egg at a time, to prevent [...]
A: multiple pregnancies

Q: Overall goal of the Nervous system is to [...] and [...]
A: process inputs from the world; create a response

Q: The valleys of the brain are [...], the ridges are [...]
A: Sulci; gyri

Q: The caudal direction is toward [...], the rostral direction is toward [...]
A: the back; the front

The frontal and temportal lobes are separated by the Lateral Sulcus
The parietal lobe and the frontal lobe are separated by the central sulcus

Q: The cells of the nervous sytem consist of:
[...]
[...]
A: Nerve Cells (aka neurons); Glial cells

Q: In the brain, the [...] cells are 10x more common than the [...] cells
A: glial; neuron

The roles of glial cells include:
Backup supply of oxygen
remove neurotransmitters
remove ammonia byproducts
Take up K+
Myelination of axons

Q: The dendrites [...] signals and are [...] branched
A: receive; highly

Q: NTs are released at the [...] of the cell, which is [...] branched
A: Axon Terminal; not

Q: The two types of synapses are [...] and [...]
A: electrical; chemical

Q: The more common synapse is the [...] synapse, and conducts signals at a [...] rate
A: chemical; slower

Q: The chemical synapse is [...] directional, the electrical synapse is [...] directional
A: one; two

Q: The [...] synapse allows summation of signals, while the [...] synapse can only have input for each neuron
A: chemical; electrical

Q: Electrical synapses are made possible through [...] cell structures
A: gap junction

The ions more concentrated on the outside of a cell are Na, Ca, Cl
The ion more concentrated on the inside of the cell is K
The resting membrane potential of the cell is -70mV

Parts of a neuron:
Dendrites
Soma,
Axon hillock
Myelin sheath
Axon (+ terminal)

Q: The more [...] an ion, the closer the membrane will get to [...]
A: permeable; the ions equilibrium potential

Q: single EPSPs are [...] to reach threshold
EPSPs are [...] to allow summation
A: not enough; quite long

EPSP = excitatory = increase permeability to Na
IPSP = inhibitory = increase permeability to Cl

Q: IPSP (inhibitory) can depolarize the cell when the [...] than the [...]
A: cell potential is lower; chloride eq potential

Q: There are many NTs in the [...], there is only one NT in the [...]
A: CNS; NMJ
Back Extra: only one is acetylcholine

Presynaptic AP# : Postsynaptic AP# ratio is 1:1 in the NMJ
May need many presynaptic APs to trigger a postsynaptic AP in the CNS

Q: at the NMJ, there is only [...] *Activity
The CNS has both [...]
A: excitation; Excitation and Inhibition

Q: Physiology studies the [...] in an organism
A: function

Things that are continuous with the outside world:
digestive system
Respiratory system
Reproductive system
Renal System

Q: Cell functions are dependent on the (External or internal) environment to function properly
[...]
A: Internal

Q: Homeostasis tries to keep the (internal or external) environment of the body in equilibrium
[...]
A: Internal

Q: Every organ system except the [...] system tries to maintain homeostasis
A: reproductive

The two controls over homeostasis of the body are:
1. The nervous system which is fast
2. The endocrine system which is slow
Both of these systems work through negative feedback

Q: Control over body temperature is maintained through the [...] in the brain
A: hypothalamus

42 L of total body fluid
28 is intracell
10 is interstitial
4 is plasma

things (ions) that are more concentrated extracell are:
Na
Cl
Bicarb 
Ca
things that are more concentrated intracell are:
Potassium
Proteins

Q: There are more proteins in the [...] than the [...], the most in the [...]
A: plasma; intersitial fluid; intracellular

Four main mechanisms of membrane transport
1. endo and exocytosis
2. Simple diffusion
3. Facilitated diffusion
4. active transport

Q: The [...] of phospholipids are responsible for keeping the water from penetrating
A: tails

Q: Three locations of proteins in the cell membrane
1. [...]
2. [...]
3. [...]
A: transmembrane; Peripheral proteins; Encased in the middle

Q: Membrane carbohydrates are concentrated on the [...]
- functional role is to [...]
A: outsides of cell membranes; communicate

functions of membrane proteins:
1. receptors
2. enzymes
3. Transporters (carriers and pores)
4. Antigens for recognition 
5. Anchors

Q: Simple diffusion: movement of molecules [...] concentration gradient due to [...]
Stops at [...]
A: down; random thermal motion; absolute zero

Q: Diffusion through the membrane is only possible if the molecule is [...]
The [...] prevent hydrophilic molecules from moving through
A: non polar; tails of the phospholipids

Q: Rate of diffusion across a membrane can be predicted by [...]
Rate = [...]
A: Ficks Law; D x (concentration gradient) x (Surface area of membrane)
Back Extra: D = constant, influenced by solute size and medium viscosity

Q: Protein channel transport are [...] in Facilitated diffusion
included or not included
A: not included

Q: the pore for water movement is called an [...]
A: aquaporin

Q: Diffusion through proteins channels and pores is driven by [...]
A: concentration gradient

Factors affecting rate through protein channel:
1. size of molecule 
2. charge of channel and molecule - similar is slower
3. ElectriChem Gradient of solute
4. Pressure (kinetic) gradient 
5. Hydration of solute

Q: Filtering by a leak channel (diffusion) [...] chemical specificity
Chemical specificity is for [...] and [...]
A: is not; facilitated diffusion; active transport

Q: Permeability of of an ion depends on the [...] and [...] of the protein channel
A: number; type

Q: Molecules undergoing facilitated diffusion move faster than [...] suggests
A: Fick's law

Q: Facilitated diffusion involves [...], and [...]
A: binding of molecule; change in protein conformation

Q: ion diffusion through a pore [...] a form of carrier mediated diffusion
A: is not

Q: Driving force of facilitated diffusion is [...]
A: concentration gradient

Q: Characteristics of Facilitated Diffusion:
1. [...]
2. [...]
3. [...]
A: Chemical specificity; Competitively inhibited; Saturation Kinetics

Q: Chemical specificity = [...]
A: one protein carrier only shuttles one type of molecule

Q: The max rate of transport in facilitated diffusion is dependent on the [...] and the [...]
A: number of carriers; speed of conformational change

Active transport is a form of carrier mediated trasport
So it exerts:
1. chemical specificity
2. Competitive inhibition
3. Saturation Kinetics

Q: Active transport moves things [...] concentration gradient and uses [...]
A: up the; ATP

Q: An example of active transport is the NaK transporter
1 ATP = [...] and [...]
A: 3 Na out; 2 K in

The inhibitors of NaK are Ouabain and digoxin 
Mechanism is locking the transporter in the open facing out conformation  through preventing K binding

Q: Functions of the NaK pump:
- [...]
- [...]
- [...]
A: maintain high K inside, Na outside; slight contribution to cell membrane negativity (3+ removed, 2+ in); keeps cell from swelling by removing solutes

Q: Solvent  + solute = [...]
A: solution

Q: Osmosis : movement of water down its concentration gradient due to [...]
A: thermal motion

Q: The movement of water is determined by [...]
A: solute concentration

Q: Osmosis requires a [...] to work
A: semi permeable membrane

Q: Osmotic pressure is the pressure required to [...]
is proportional to the number of [...]
A: stop osmosis; solute particles

Q: Osmols describes the [...] of [...]
A: number; osmotically active particles

Q: Osmolality = osmols per [...] of solution
Osmolarity = osmols per [...] of solution
A: Kg; Litre

Q: Osmolarity (does or does not care) about the identity of particles
[...]
A: does not

Q: 1 mol of NaCl in 1L of water = osmolarity of [...] moles per Litre
A: 2

Q: The side that water moves to is the one that has (higher or lower) osmotic pressure
[...]
A: higher
Back Extra: osmotic pressure is directly proportional to solute concentration

Q: osmolality of cell fluid (intracell) is [...] per Kg of water
A: 290-300 mOsmols
Back Extra: try to maintain this number through homeostasis

Q: Tonicity is the ability of a solution to [...]
A: cause osmosis across a biological cell membrane

Q: Tonicity:
Hypotonic - [...]
Isotonic - [...]
hypertonic - [...]
A: extracell is less conc than intracell; same; extracell is more conc than intracell

Q: hypotonic cells will [...]
hypertonic cells will [...]
A: swell; shrivel

Q: Cystic Fibrosis is a [...] disorder than mainly affects [...]
A: genetic; the lungs

Q: Cystic fibrosis protein abnormality in [...], which helps pump [...] into t[...]
A: CFTR; chloride; he lumen of the airway
Back Extra: regulation of hydration of mucus

Q: Loss of CFTR means the chloride builds up [...]
A: inside of the cell

Q: Loss of CFTR means water will move [...], causing a loss in the [...] levels, causing decreased [...]
A: into the cell; Periciliary fluid; cilia action
Back Extra: since buildup of chloride = buildup of + Na inside, osmolarity > 300mOsm

Q: An IPSP move the cell membrane potential toward [...], not [...]
A: Chloride equilibrium potential; hyperpolarization, necessarily
Back Extra: may sometimes depolarize, if cell is more negative than chloride

Q: Types of summation:
1. [...]
2. [...]
A: Spatial  - same time, many; Temporal - multiple, very fast

Q: The length of an EPSP is [...], which allows for [...] when stacked faster than that
A: 15 ms; summation

Q: The [...]synaptic neuron synthesizes the NT
A: pre

Q: Release of NT vesicles is dependent on [...]
A: calcium influx

Ionotropic receptors allow flow of ions directly, and are fast
Metabotropic receptors do not allow flow of ions directly, and are slow

Types of NTs to know:
1. Ach
2. Biogenic amines - dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine
3. Amino acids
4. 
Neuropetides - act on metabotropics

Q: Glutamate - most common [...] NT in [...]
A: excitatory; CNS

Q: GABA - widespread [...] NT in [...]
A: inhibitory; CNS

Q: Glycine - [...] NT in the [...]
A: Inhibitory; spine and brainstem

Q: Strychnine - [...]
- result is a [...] = [...]
A: glycine antagonist; double negative; net positive

Q: presynaptic inhibition and facilitation:
- alter number of [...] secreted with [...]
-advantage is allows [...], unlike global neuron inhibiton
A: NT vesicles; each AP; fine control over each axon terminal

Q: NMDA receptor - allows [...] into the postsyn neurol when NT binds, triggers [...]
A: Ca; secondary messengers

Q: effects of NMDA secondary messengers:
1. [...]
2. [...]
3. [...]
A: increase in sensitivity of AMPA receptors; insert more AMPA to the surface; synthesize more AMPA for insertion

Q: NMDA mediated AMPA sensitivity is to ensure [...] in the post syn
A: important signals are heard
Back Extra: since it takes a lot of NT to trigger the NMDA path, must be important

Q: NMDA mediated AMPA sensitivity is an example of [...]
A: synaptic plasticity

Q: AMPA receptors are gated by [...], and allow [...] when activated, causing an [...]
A: glutamate; Na influx; EPSP

Q: NMDA plasticity
- high glutamate = [...]
- low glutamate = [...]
A: high Ca+ conductance; low Na and Ca conductance

Q: Long term potentiation:
- more or less neural response based on [...]
- Can be both [...] or [...]
A: memory regime; inhibition; activation

Q: Presynaptic mechanism of LTP: - [...]
A: more Ca+ per AP means more NT vesicles are release through AP

Q: Signal transduction - turning [...] into [...]
A: physical phenomena; neural activity

Q: Sensory receptor - nerve cell ending that is tuned to one form of [...]
A: environment energy

Q: Receptors can be sensitive to [...] form of energy
A: more than one

Q: The form of energy that a receptor is most sensitive to is the [...]
A: adequate stimulus
Back Extra: EX eyes are also slightly sensitive to pressure inputs, but by far the most effective is light input

Transduction mechanisms:
1. Mechanical - physical stretch
2. Temperature - hot and cold open ion channels
3. Chemical - (Nociceptors) damage releases chemicals to open channels
4. Light - photons close channels

Q: Generator potentials are (propogated or not), (graded or not) and are dependent on [...] ion influx
[...] [...]
A: Na; not propagated; Graded
Back Extra: local, proportional to the stimulus intensity, can trigger AP when they reach the threshold
More intensity of stimulus allows more Na channels to open

Q: If the graded potential does not hit threshold, you feel [...]
A: nothing

Two core types of receptors are slow adapting and fast adapting
Fast adapting receptors cannot perform frequency coding

Q: Two different stimulus coding schemes are [...] and [...]
A: frequencing coding; population coding

Q: Population coding indicates intensity through the [...]
Frequency coding indicates intensity through the [...]
Frequency coding is not available in [...] neurons
A: number of neurons firing; rate of firing in each neuron; fast adapting
Back Extra: the more neurons, the more than have made it past their threshold, means the stimulus is strong - population
The more intense the stimulus, the faster neurons will fire - needs number of AP over time - not possible if rapid adapting

Pacinian corpuscles are the most sensitive mechanoreceptor , and so can detect very fine texture 
Mechanism - the receptor is in the middle of an onion, forces that displace adequately can activate the central receptor

Q: The frequency of a Pacinian's firing rate is dependent on [...], not the [...]
Thus the pacinian is a [...] adapting receptor
A: stimulus vibration frequency; intensity of the stimulus; Fast
Back Extra: at different intensities, the firing rate is the same ( so not frequency coding)
Different frequency of stimulus means different firing rate (unique to Pac)

Q: a Pacinian cannot code for [...] of the stimulus
A: intensity

Q: Net movement of water across cell membranes are determined by [...]
A: Darrow-Yannet diagrams

Q: Changes to  human fluid balance always occur in the( ECF or ICF) first
[...]
A: ECF

Q: A hypotonic load means the ECF gets [...] and the [...] are hypotonic
Ex would be [...]
A: more dilute; cells; drinking lots of water

Hyponatremia can be caused by drinking too much water, and means sodium concentration goes down
 in ECF
Damages cells due to excess swelling as water moves from dilute ECF to the cells

Hypotonic loss means massive water loss, meaning the ECF becomes more concentrated and the volume goes down 
Movement of water from ICF to ECF to compensate

Q: Solute load means the osmolality of the ECF [...], and water moves from the [...] to the [...] to compensate
A: increases; ICF; ECF
Back Extra: volume of ECF can increase or not, if eating solid solutes or drinking salty water

Solute loss can be mediated through kidney disease, replacing donated blood with water
ECF osmolality goes down, means water goes from the ECF to the ICF to compensate

Q: The nature (quality) of a stimulus is signaled by the [...]
A: different receptors with individual adequate stimulus

The Galbrous skin is hairless and very sensitive and have both T1 and T2 receptors
T1 has a very small receptor field
T2 has a large receptor field, receptors are deep in the skin
Back Extra: like on the hands, feet and lips

Q: the [...] of the axon, the faster the conductance speed
A: larger the diameter

Q: sensory acuity is boosted by [...] and [...]
Sensory acuity can be measured through [...]
A: high innervation density; small receptive fields; two point discrimination

Q: The two ascending pathways are the [...] and [...]
A: Dorsal; Spintothalamic

The dorsal column path way is responsible for fine touch, proprioception, vibration , and is more sensitive than the Spinothalamic

Information of the dorsal column crosses L--> R (contralateral cross) in the brain, and ascends the spine ipsilaterally
Information of the spinothalamic path crosses L--R(contralateral) in the spine, and ascends the spine contralalaterally

Q: The phylogenetically older system is the [...] ascending pathway, and so it is responsible for [...] sensations, and has [...] receptive fields
A: Spinothalamic; crude and basic; large

Q: The faster ascending pathway is the [...] pathway
A: dorsal column

Q: Only the [...] ascending pathway has convergence of modalities
A: spinothalamic

Q: Somatosensory plasticity modifies the [...] dedicated to a certain task
After amputation or loss of function, the brain is able to fill in the free space with [...]
A: amount of surface area; other sensory modalities
Back Extra: dedicated areas can expand by awakening dormant and inhibited synapses in other, surrounding areas.

Loss of limb early in life means more incorporation of stump into daily life - cortex still represents lost arm
Loss of limb later in life means more reliace on the other arm (bias) - other arm takes over in the cortex

Q: each column of the somatosensory cortex is [...], meaning that they all respond to the [...]
A: modality pure; same sensory input and receptive field

Q: The dorsal column signals to [...]% of somatosensory column, while the Spinothalamic column signals to [...]%
A: 90; 10
Back Extra: the dorsals are modality pure! , the spinothalalmic mixes receptor signals

Q: Reconstructing somatosensory inputs means [...] for understanding
A: integration of signals together

Q: Reconstruction of somatosensory inputs occurs initially in the [...] cortex, then moves to the [...] cortex
A: somatosensory; posterior parietal

Lesions in the parietal cortex result in neglect syndrom - inability to integrate sensory inputs from one side of the body 
Lesions in the somatosensory cortex result in alien hand syndrome -  inability to control their limb, as if it were under someone else's control
Back Extra: neglecting the left

Rods are for night,black and white vision, while cones are for day, colour vision

Q: the cones are most concentrated in the [...], and this are allows the greatest [...]
A: fovea; sharpness of image

Q: Rods are the most dense [...]
A: immediately beside the fovea
Back Extra: NOT at the extreme periphery

When light is absorbed, Na flow is stopped

In the absence of light, Na flow is allowed
This is done through a GPCR and rhodopsin conformation change

Q: The NT released by the rods are [...], release in the [...]
A: glutamate; absence of light

Q: Two classes of receptive fields in retinal ganglion cells:
1. [...]
2. [...]
A: On centre, off surround; Off centre, on surround

Q: Surround inhibiton is responsible for [...] of images
A: edge sharpening

Q: Advanced feature extraction pathway:
1. [...]
2. [...]
3. [...]
A: retina; lateral geniculate (thalamus); Visual cortex

Q: For every single simple cell, there are multiple [...] with [...] receptive fields
A: contrast cells; circular

Q: Prosopagnosia is the inability [...] and can be caused by [...]
A: to recognize familiar faces; lesion to high areas of the visual cortex

Q: Capillaries are made up of [...] cells, [...] cell thick
A: endothelial; single

Q: Bulk flow is the movement of [...] and [...] across [...]
A: water; small solutes; capillary endothelial cells

Q: bulk flow is [...] to large proteins
A: impermeable

Q: The size of the capillary endothelial gap is [...]
A: 8nm

Two examples of bulk flow are reabsorption (IF to blood) and filtration (blood to IF)

Q: With the exception of [...], the comosition of the plasma and IF are [...]
There is way more protein concentration in the [...]
A: proteins; very similar; plasma

oncotic pressures are osmotic pressures created by proteins in the plasma and IF

Q: Fluid exchange between the IF and plasma is determined by [...]
A: Starling Forces

Q: the two types of starling forces are
1. [...]
2. [...]
A: oncotic; hydrostatic

In starling forces, Pc is plasma hydrostatic pressure
It is higher at the arteriole end and lesser at the venule end
Causes the process of filtration

Q: Filtration in the capillary is more prevalent at the [...]
A: arteriole end
Back Extra: since the plasma hydrostatic pressure is higher near the arteriole end

Q: Every starling force except [...] is [...] of the capillary
A: Pc; constant along the length

Q: In starling forces, Pif is the [...]
It varies [...]
A: interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure; from organ to organ

Negative Pif causes filtration, common in subcutaneous tissue
Positive Pif causes reabsorption 
common in encapsulated organ tissue

Q: osmotic pressures are represented with the [...]
A: pi symbol

Q: Pi(if) is interstitial fluid [...], caused by [...] in the interstitium
helps the process of [...]
A: oncotic pressure; protein; filtration

Q: Pi(p) is [...], caused by [...] in the plasma
helps the process of [...]
A: plasma oncotic pressure; protein; reabsorption

Q: [...] oncotic pressure is way larger than [...] oncotic pressure
A: plasma; IF

Q: The Starling Landis equation determines the [...]
A: net flow of fluid in or out of the capillary

Q: In starling forces, the Kf is the [...], usually the value is [...]
A: filtration coefficient; 1

The filtration coefficient is constant in single capillary beds, but different in  different tissue types
it represents the permeability of the capillary and the SA of the endothelium

Q: + net fluid movement is [...]
- net fluid movement is [...]
A: net filtration out; net reabsorption in

Q: Heavy fluid buildup in the IF is called an [...]
Can be alleviated by the [...]
A: edema; lymph system

Q: The lymph system structure has (loose ends or closed loops)
[...]
A: loose ends

Q: fluid moves into and through Lymph by:
1. [...]
2. [...]
3. [...]
A: pressure gradient into the lymph; smooth muscle pump; skeletal muscle pump

Q: The lymph system empties into the [...]
A: vena cava

Causes of edema:
1. decrease in plasma proteins
2. blockage of venous return
3. blockage of the lymph system
4. tissue damage (increase to Kf) to allow more filtration

Q: Malnutrition lowers plasma protein concentrations and eliminates [...] (Starling force )
A: the plasma oncotic pressure

Q: Edema is more significant in [...] tissue since the [...] in that tissue
A: subcutaneous; P(if) is negative

Q: blockage to venous return results in [...] and causes edema
A: increase in Pc

Q: Blockage of venous return can be caused by:
1. [...]
2. [...]
3. [...]
A: exercise; sitting for extended time; pregnancy

Q: Elephantiasis is caused by worm that reduces [...], and results in [...]
A: lymphatic drainage; edema

Q: [...] membrane permeability is much higher than [...] membrane permeability
- main reason for the -70mV membrane potential
A: potassium; sodium

Q: Traits of carrier mediated transport
1. [...]
2. [...]
3. [...]
A: chemical specificity; inhibition by similar mlecule; saturation kinetics
Back Extra: for both fac transport and active

Q: The inside of a cell at rest is more [...] than the outside
A: negative

Q: The resting membrane potential is determined by [...], the [...]
A: different permeability to cations; NaK pump

Q: The equilibrium potential is the [...] potential that is needed to offset the [...] gradient of the ion.
A: ELECTRICAL; CONCENTRATION

Q: Conditions of the Nernst Equation:
1. [...]
2. [...]
A: Membrane is permeable to only one ion; The must be a concentration gradient for that ion

The Nernst Equation :
Potential = RT/FZ x ln([ion]o/[ion]i
R= gas constant
T= Abs Temperature
F= Faraday
Z = Valence

Q: For a cation with more concentration on the outside, the [...] of the cell would be more negative in eq.
A: outside

Q: The Nernst equation (can or cannot be) used to calculate the resting membrane potential
[...]
A: cannot
Back Extra: it can only calculate potentials of single ions

Q: The resting membrane potential is calculated using the [...]
A: Goldman Equation

The Goldman equation:

Q: In the goldman equation, [...] is inverted since it is [...]
A: chloride; negatively charged

Q: The usual resting membrane potential is [...]
A: -70 mV

Q: At an RMP of -70mV , chloride moves [...] across the membrane
A: back and forth equally
Back Extra: since the Cl- potential is -70mV

Q: Lower frequencies are represented at the [...] of the cochlea
A: distal end

Q: hairs in the cochlea that sense high frequency are [...] and [...] than the ones that sense low frequency
A: shorter; stiffer

motion in the endolymph allows hair cells to permit potassium entry, which then causes depolarization and the opening of calcium gated ion channels.

Q: Calcium entry into the hair cell causes [...] toward the [...]
A: NT exocytosis; afferent auditory nerve

Q: Different [...] placed [...] indicate frequency to the brain
A: hair cells; along the cochlea

Q: Auditory intensity is coded by:
1. increase in [...]
2. increase in [...]
A: frequency of firing afferents; number of afferents firing

Q: A hair cell firing faster means [...], not that [...]
A: the sound is getting louder; the frequency of the sound is getting higher

Two properties that allow sound localization
1. different intensities in two ears
2. different timing in two ears
humans are really good at horizontal localization, but bad at vertical

Q: sound localization is done by the (brain areas)
[...]
A: L and R superior Olive

Q: The left Superior olive gets [...]  from the left ear, and [...] from the right ear
A: excitatation; inhibition

Q: A sound coming from the left ear would [...] the LSO more than [...] it because the [...] signal is weaker
A: stimulate; inhibit; contralateral inhibition

Q: If an sound is directly in front, the inhibition and excitation on the [...] are [...]
A: 2 superior olives; equal

Q: tonotonic organization is organization based on [...]
A: frequencies of sound

Q: The auditory cortex is subject to [...] and [...] organization
A: tonotonic; columnar

Q: Deafness is usually a [...] issue, not a [...] problem
A: periphery; CNS

Q: lesions to the auditory cortex may cause
1. difficulty [...]
2. difficulty [...]
A: locating sounds; recognizing sound patterns
Back Extra: not deafness in either side

Cochlear implant transmitters send power and sound frequencies to the receiver
The receiver then stimulates the cochlea at the correct location

Q: The vestibular system senses [...] and [...] movement of the head
A: rotational; linear

Q: Linear acceleeration is sensed by the [...] and [...]
A: utricle; saccule

Q: Rotational movement of the head is sensed by the [...]
A: 3 semicircular canals
Back Extra: one in each plane of motion

Q: The [...] is the swelling in the semicircular canal that houses the [...] and the [...]
A: amupulla; cupula; hair cells

Q: The semicirular canals are dependent on the [...] to move the Cupula and hair cells
A: inertia of the endolymph
Back Extra: the fluid will lag behind the solids organs that are connected to the head

Q: the otoliths are dependent on the inertia of [...] to sense acceleration
A: otoconia crytals
Back Extra: The semicircular canals do not have the crystals normally

Q: the [...] is the horizontal otolith and the [...] is the verticle otolith
A: utricle; saccule

Q: Only the (otoliths or semicircular canals) can be constantly activated
[...]
A: The otoliths
Back Extra: since the endolymph of the semmicircular canals eventually "catched up" to the rest of the organ

Q: hair cells in the Semiciruclar canals are attached to the [...]
A: basal layer

Q: The semicircular canals can only signal [...], not [...]
A: changes in head rotation; constant movement

Q: Benign positional vertigo is caused by [...]
A: debris in the semicircular canals

Q: Benign positional vertigo is strange to the semicircular canal since [...]
A: it is constantly stimulating the hair cell
Back Extra: usuall, only changes are reflected in the hair cell, so not constant activation

Q: The kinocilium is the [...] of the hair cell
A: longest hair

Q: movement of hairs toward the [...] causes [...]
A: kinocilium; more AP firing

Q: The two sets of semiciruclar canals - one in each side - should always [...]
A: generate opposing inputs

Q: shifting hair cells away from the kinocilium means [...]
A: decreased AP firing

Q: Vestibular postural reflexes are [...], do not need [...]
A: spinal; the brain

Q: Visual and vestibular inputs are integrated in the [...] to get better sense of motion
A: cerebellum

Q: Vestibular ocular reflex - [...]
A: keep eyes on target when the head moves

Q: The vestibular connects to some eye muscles to mediate the [...]
A: vestibular ocular reflex

Q: Nystagmus - inability to [...]
A: maintain eye contact

Q: Nystagmus of the eye can be either [...] or [...]t contact
A: up-down; left-righ

4 types of eye movements:
1. saccades
2. smooth pursuit
3. Vestibular ocular reflex
4. Convergence

Q: Convergence allows eyes to track objects moving [...]
A: closer or away from you

Q: Prprioception - ability to [...]
A: sense where your body is in space without vision

Q: [...] are responsible for proprioception, and conduct [...] speed
A: muscle spindles; at a fast

Q: spindle are in [...] muscle fibers
A: intrafusal

Two types of endings for spindle:
1. primary responds to rate of change of stretch 
2. secondary responds to absolute value of stretch

Q: golgi tendon organs are in [...] with the muscle
parallel or series
A: series

Q: Muscle spindle are in [...] with the muscle
series or parallel
A: parallel

Q: the golgi tendon organ is innervated by a [...]
A: sensory fibre

Q: The golgi tendon is activated when the [...] is compressed by [...], opening [...]
A: capsule; muscle contraction; mechanically sensitive ion channels

Q: too much contraction in the [...] will [...] as a safetly mechanism
A: golgi tendon organ; force relaxation

Q: muscle spindle are present in [...], but are most common in [...]
A: all skeletal muscles; fine control muscles

Q: Absolute value of muscle stretch is best reflected in [...]
A: secondary spindle activation

Q: under alpha neuronal contraction of the extrafusal muscle, the [...] is maintained by [...]
A: intrafusal muscle tension; gamma innervation

Q: Without gamma innervation of the intrafuasl muscle, spindles [...] under extrafusal contraction and primary spindles will [...]
A: fall slack; not respond

Q: Under willful contraction, the IA spindle firing changes when [...] between the [...] and [...] contractions
A: there is a mismatch; intrafusal; extrafusal
Back Extra: ex when something gets in the way of muscle contraction

Q: When [...] contract - both alpha and gamma fire - then the IA response will be [...]
A: intrafusal and extrafusal spindle; constant firing

Q: When the bicep is contracted, then the triceps IA spindle will undergo [...]
A: passive stretch reception

Q: Vibration in muscle tendons will cause a [...]
A: passive stretch sensation
Back Extra: vibration in the biceps tendon will feel like arm is extending

Q: spinal reflexes can be tested using [...]
A: tendon stretch tests
Back Extra: the knee test is the most famous one

Q: Tapping the knee tendon simulates extreme [...]
so the reflex is to activate [...] muscle and relax the [...]
A: knee flexion; extensor; flexor

Q: The spinal stretch reflex involves these nerves :
1. [...]
2. [...]
3. [...]
A: the sensory neuron; the interneuron; various responsive motor neurons

Q: Latency of the stretch reflex is [...], and is [...] than voluntary action
A: 30ms; much faster

Q: There is no response from stretch reflex when the stretch is slow because the [...] spindle do not [...]
A: IA; summate to reach AP

Q: Muscle tone is [...] to stretch by [...]
A: passive resistance; relaxed muscle

Q: In spasticity, increased sensitivity to [...] means increased resistance to [...]
A: stretch reflex; passive, slow muscle stretches

Q: One mechanism for spasticity is elevated [...] in [...]
A: baseline potential; motor neurons
Back Extra: their response to stretch is normal, just start at a high spot

Q: The spinal stretch reflex is [...]
permanent or influenceable
A: influenceable
Back Extra: may help spastics tone down their responses

Q: The purpose of the spinal withdrawal reflex is to remove limb from [...]
A: noxious stimulus

Q: Spinal withdrawal relexes [...] in paraplegics
will or will not occur
A: will occur

Q: The spinal withdrawal reflex is [...] [...]
ipsilateral or contralateral
flexion or extension
A: ipsilateral; Flexion

Q: after discharge mechanisms in spinal withdrawal reflex
1. [...]
2. [...]
A: reverberating positive reflex in the spine to extend reaction; extended discharge or nociceptors after stimulus ends

Q: [...] reflex is often paired with the [...]
A: Crossed extensor; withdrawal reflex
Back Extra: to ensure that removal of weight from L leg maintains posture
- the R leg bears the weight

Q: A spinal reflex that is site specific is the [...]
A: scratch reflex

Q: site specific reflexes require [...] to act on affected site
A: increased coordination of limbs

Q: The [...] is placed in front of the central sulcus
A: primary motor cortex

Q: stimulation of the central motor cortex produces [...]
A: muscle contractions

Q: methods to learn about the primary motor cortex
1. [...]
2. [...]
3. [...]
A: stimulation; lesions; recording
Back Extra: single neuron recordings are the most invasive recording method

Q: With the notable exception of [...], the sensory and motor humunculi are [...]
A: the lips; very similar

Q: Two schools of thought are that the motor cortex controls:
1. [...]
2. [...]
A: individual motor contractions; big picture motions and gestures

Q: Evidence that the motor cortex causes general movements:
1. [...]
2. [...]
3. [...]
A: representation of a single muscle is scattered; single cortical neurons synapse with multiple motor neurons; stimulation of cortex neurons produces large scale, purposeful movements

Q: discharge in the motor cortex [...] movement onset
A: precedes

Q: What is tuning in the context of motor cortex neurons
A: show preferential activation when activating amotion to a certain direction

Q: Discharge frequency of motor cortex neurons is proportional to [...]
A: the speed of the motion
Back Extra: faster motion means more frequent firing

Q: Motor cortex neurons have [...] preferred direction of movement
A: one

Q: What is this
A: I hope you understood lol

Q: the motor cortex [...] plasticity
shows or does not show
A: shows

Q: recovery from motor cortex is dependent on plasticity - the ability of [...]
A: surrounding neurons to adapt roles of damaged neurons

three tracts from the motor cortex are the:
1. corticospinal
2. rubrospinal - passing through the red nucleus 
3. Reticulospinal - passing through the reticular formation

the rubrospinal and reticulospinal tracts send to the brainstem, and trigger crude motor actions

Q: corticomotor neurons represent [...] of the [...], and only exist in [...]
A: 10%; corticospinal tract; dextrous primates

Q: three types of neurons in the coritcospinal tracts:
1. [...]
2. [...]
3. [...]
A: corticomotor; pass to excitatory interneurons; pass to inhibitory interneurons

Q: humans have an overrepresentation of [...] tract neurons
A: corticospinal

Q: The corticospinal tract(motor) and the [...] (sensory) likely coevolved
A: medial lemniscap system

Q: Motor cortex lesions can cause issues with [...]
A: fine motor control
Back Extra: crude movements are fine due to rubro and reticulospinal tract processing

Q: Effects of motor cortex lesions are most dramatic in [...] muscles
A: distal

factors that contribute to AP - movement latency
1. conduction from cortex to spine
2. conduction from spine to NMJ
3. time for summation of EPSP in alpha neurons
4. synaptic delay at the NMJ
5. time to overcome limb inertia

Q: The cerebellum has [...]% of brain volume, [...]% of neurons
A: 10; 50

the two input streams of the Cerebellum:
1. climbing - multi synapses x1 purkinje
2. mossy - one synapse, multi purkinje

Q: all output streams of the cerebellum have to pass through the [...]
A: Deep Nuclei cell

Q: The climbing and mossy fibres can synapse to the [...] or the [...]
A: Deep nuclei cell; Purkinje

Q: The purkinje cell [...] the deep nuclei cell
inhibits or excites
A: inhibits

Q: Cerebellar functions are [...]
conscious or subconscious
A: subconcious

Q: The two divisions of the cerebellum:
1. [...]
2. [...]
The [...] division is more developed in humans and monkeys
A: lateral; medial; lateral

Q: In addition to well documented motor fucntions, cerebellar synapsing with the [...] indicate support for [...]
A: frontal cortex; cognitive functioning

Q: The medial cerebellum link to the [...], [...] and [...]
A: Vestibular; auditory; visual

Three types of Deep cerebellar nuclei cells:
1. Dentate
2. Interposed
3. Fastigial 
The medial Cerebellum passes through the Fastigial

Q: Lesions of the cerebellum often look like [...]
A: alcohol intoxication

Q: Symptoms of Cerebellar lesions from video
1. [...]
2. [...]3. [...]
A: cannot touch finger to nose - lateral; eyes oscillate a lot when trying to fixate - medial; cannot walk straight

functions of the cerebellum:
1. accurate saccades and limb movements
2. predictive motor control - fix the latency - from sight 
3. error correction, recalibration
4. cognition contributions

Problems associated with the Basal Ganglia:
1. Parkinsons
2. Tourettes
3. Huntingtons
4. Hemiballismus

Q: Basal ganglia helps to generate [...]
A: smooth actions

The following areas of the cerebral cortex link to the BG
1. motor
2. oculomotor
3. limbic
4. cognitive

Fundamental linkages of the BG:
Cerebral cortex -(glutamate)-> BG -(GABA)-> Thalamus -(Glutamate)->Cerebral cortex

Q: The neostriatum consists of the [...] and [...]
A: Caudate; putamen

Q: Direct path through the BG:
[...] --> [...] --> [...]
A: Neo; Internal Globus; Thalamus

Indirect path through the BG:
Neo --> External globus --> Subthalamic nucelus --> internal globus

Q: The BG uses [...] NT to [...] the Thalamus
A: GABA; inhibit

Q: The BG function on motor function is analagous to [...]
A: brakes on a car
Back Extra: provides constant inhibition, to stop excess movement
Release the brakes when you want movement

Q: Signs of BG lesions are often confused with [...]
A: natural aging

Q: The basal ganglia contains the [...], which communicates with the [...] with [...]
A: Substantia Nigra; Neostriatum; Dopamine

Q: Parkinson's is the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the [...] which changes the [...] in the BG
A: substantia nigra pars compacta; balance between direct and indirect paths

Q: Akinesia is the [...] in [...] Disease
A: poverty of movement; Parkinsons

Q: Parkinson's has [...] tremor that stops only when [...]
A: resting; moving

Q: Rigidity in PD is different that spasticity because rigidity is [...]
A: not velocity dependent

Features of Parkinson's
1. Rigidity
2. Resting tremor
3. Akinesia
4.Bradykinesia
5. Dementia
6. Mask like face

Q: In a nutshell, parkinson's is a problem with [...] actions
A: initiating

Q: Treatment of PD methods:
1. [...]
2. [...]
Mechanism:
- [...]
A: L-DOPA; Stimuation of internal Globus; stops inhibition of the thalamus

Q: Problems with L-DOPA for PD treatment:
1. [...]
2. [...]
A: can build resistance; may cause TOO much movement intiation since it is crude

Q: Parkinson's genetic component vs Huntingtons
[...]
A: Parkinson's is way more sporadic, less genetic

Q: HD caused by [...], this leads to degeneration of the [...] and [...]
A: abnormal repeats of the Huntington's gene; caudate; putamen

Q: The outlook for Huntington's is [...]
A: certain death

Q: Symptoms of HD
1. Movement - [...]
2. Speech - [...]
3. Cognition - [...]
A: uncontrolled; slurred, then incomprehensible; reasoning disappears

Q: In a nutshell, HD is a [...] of motion and cannot [...]
A: overabundance; be still

Pathway for HD
1. Increased subthalamic nucleus 
2. decrease in internal globus pallidus
3. increase in the thalamus
4. increase in all 4 cerebral cortex components

Q: Hemiballismus is a problem with the [...]
A: subthalamic nucleus

Q: Hemiballismus manifests as [...]
A: uncontrolled movment

Q: coprolalia is [...], and is linked to [...] syndrome
A: inappropriate utterances; tourette

Q: Symptoms of Tourettes:
1. [...]
2. [...]
3. [...]
A: Physical ticks; Coprolalia; excessive and runaway thoughts

Q: In visual sensation, the first cell to generate APs is the [...]
A: ganglion cell

Q: The NT released by cone cells is [...]
A: Glutamate

Q: The NT released by Horizontal cells is [...]
A: GABA

Q: Differences between the NMJ and CNS junction
1. [...]
2. [...]
3. [...]
A: there are multiple NTs in CNS; NMJ synapses have a 1:1 ratio of post to pre synaptic AP; NMJ only has excitation, the CNS can have inhib or excite

Q: Two ways to trigger postsynaptic 2nd messenger cascades:
1. [...]
2. [...]
A: NMDA receptor Ca++ influx; G-protein activation by a neuromodulator

Q: The biogenic amine NTs are:
1. [...]
2. [...]
3. [...]
A: Dopamine; (NOR)epinephrine; serotonin

Q: Amino acid NTs are:
1. [...]
2. [...]
A: Glutamate; GABA

Q: Presynaptic Mechanism of LPT in CNS
-[...]
A: increased NT exocytosis to Ca++ influx
Back Extra: instead of 2 vesicles per AP, now you have 4 per AP

Q: Post synaptic LPT mechanisms in CNS
1. [...]
2. [...]
3. [...]
A: increase in sensitivity of existing ion channels; insertion of new AMPA; synthesis of new AMPA

Q: presynaptic inhibition and facilitation is more or less [...], due to [...]
A: NT release per AP; altered Ca++ channels

Q: The dorsal column afferent path is aka [...]
A: the Medial Lemniscal system

Q: integration of body image from somatosensory cortex is at the [...]
A: posterior parietal cortex

Q: lesions to [...] results in cortical deafness
A: both sides of the auditory cortex
Back Extra: highly unlikely

Q: the visual cortex is organized [...]
A: retinotopically

Q: the frequenct range of human hearing is [...] to [...] Hz
A: 20; 20 000

order of motion in auditory sensation:
1. motion of the stapes
2. motion of the endolymph in cochlea
3. motion of the basilar membrane
4. Motion of hair cells

Q: mechanisms that contribute to cocheal hair cell frequency selectivity:
1. [...]
2. [...]
A: basilar membrane mechanical properties; thickness and stiffness variation in the hair cells

Q: population coding - coding for [...] through [...]
A: intensity; more receptors firing

Q: frequency coding - coding for [...] based on the [...]
A: intensity; frequency of APs

Q: sound localization occurs in the [...]
A: medial and lateral superior olive

Q: the saccule is [...] relative to the head
the utricle is [...] relative to the head
A: vertical; horizontal

Q: the vestibular system cannto detenct constant [...]
A: velocity

Q: the influx of K from the movement of hair cells leads to [...] influx, then [...] release
A: calcium; NT

Q: Roles of vestibular system:
1. [...]
2. [...]
3. [...]
A: sense of equilibrium and orientation; Postural reflexes; Vestibular ocular reflex

Q: Golgi tendon organs are sensitive to [...], and [...]
A: active muscle tension; not passive tension

Q: properties of scratch reflex
1. [...]
2. [...]
A: spinal cord programmed; site specific

Q: neural circuits for locomotion are located in the [...]
A: spinal cord
Back Extra: headless chicken will still walk around

Q: corticospinal tracts aka [...] go in the [...] direction
A: pyramidal tract; efferent

Q: the [...] and the [...] coevolved
A: pyramidal tract (Efferent); medial lemniscal system (Afferent)

Q: effects of lesions to the motor cortex
1. [...]
2. [...]
A: weakness; spasticity - lack on inhibition

Q: lesions to the cerebellum cause [...]
A: inaccurate and uncoordinated movements

Q: the purkinje cell is always [...] the [...]
A: inhibiting; deep Cerbellar Nucleus

lesions to the lateral cerebellum:
1. dysmetric limbs movement
2. intention tremor
3. arm ataxia
Lesions to the medial cerebellum:
1. Dysmetric Saccades
2. No smooth eye movement
3. gait ataxia

Q: the two inputs to the neostriatum are from the [...] and the [...]
A: cerebral cortex; substantia nigra pars compacta

Q: A motor unit consists of [...] unit and [...]
A: one alpha motor; all the muscle cells it innervates

Q: multiple motor units and their cells add up to a [...]
A: muscle fascicle

Q: Fascicle contraction is [...]
graded or all or nothing
A: graded

Q: A twitch is the muscle contraction caused by [...] in [...]
A: one AP; one Motor neuron

Q: Increase muscle force of contraction by:
1. [...]
2. [...]
A: increase motor unit recruitment; Increase stimulus frequency

Q: During tetanus, twitches [...] APs are [...]
A: are summated,; not summated
Back Extra: the AP is too fast to be stacked
- cannot stack anyways

Q: Max force at tetanus is proportional to the [...]
The number of motor units recruited altered through changing [...]
A: number of motor units recruited; stimulus magnitude

Smallest muscle structure to largest:
myofilament , myofibril, muscle cell, fascicle, whole muscle

Q: cell membrane of a muscle cell is called the [...]
A: sarcolemma

Q: APs travel into muscle cells via [...]
A: T-tubules

Q: The basic strucuture of actin is made up of by [...] held together by [...]
A: G-actin double helix; nebulin

Q: myosin binding sites on actin are covered by [...] at rest
A: tropomyosin
Back Extra: tropomyosin is also a double helix structure

Q: Three peptide chains of Troponin:
1. [...] binding
2. [...] binding
3. [...] binding
A: Calcium; Actin; Troponin
Back Extra: CAT

Q: troponin is responsible for holding the [...] over the [...] at rest
A: tropomyosin; actin

Each myosin molecules is made up of 2 heavy chains, each with a tail, arm, hinge and head section

Q: Each head of myosin has 2 light chains that do:
1. [...] binding
2. [...] binding
A: actin; ATP

Q: the borders of the sarcomere are defined by the [...] line
A: Z

Q: Titin roles:
1. [...]
2. [...]
A: hold the sarcomereic structure in place; return sarcomere to resting length

Q: [...], [...] and [...] are all attached to the Z line
A: titin; nebulin; actin

Q: When muscles are contracting, only the [...] changes
A: sarcomere length
Back Extra: the proteins do not lengthen or shorten

Q: Max tension is generated when the sarcomeres start at [...]
on the length tension curve
A: a middle length

Q: Calsequestrin is in the [...] and its function is to [...]
A: SR; hold on to Calcium when not in use

Q: The level of the [...] is an all or nothing contraction
A: muscle cell

Q: Type 2 SA signal is [...] that Type 1 SA
A: less irregular

The main structures of the limbic system are:
the olfactory bulb, the hippocampus, the Amygdala, the Hypothalamus, the cingulate gyrus

the functions of the limbic system:
1. emotions
2. motivational states (lead of behavior)
3. Behavior
4. Formation of long-term memory (assoc with strong emotions)
5. learning from strong emotions
Back Extra: All of these functions are required for basic survival

Q: [...] lead to [...] ,which are regulated by the [...]
A: Motivational states; behavioral responses; limbic system

Pain afferent pathway:
Up the spinothalamic tract, up to the thalamus, and to both the cingulate gyrus and the somatosensory cortex

Q: damage to the cingulate gyrus symptoms:
[...]
A: Still feel pain, but are emotionally unbothered by it

Q: the normal role of the cingulate gyrus in pain response is to [...] and [...] to pain sensation
A: attach emotional; motivational states

Q: the two input and processing areas of the Limbic are:
the [...] and the [...]
The one output area of the limbic system is the:
[...]
A: hippocampus; amygdala; Hypothalamus

Q: role of hippocampus:
Form [...] and store as [...]
[...]
A: short term memories; long term memories; senses are associated with memories

Q: A smaller hippocampus is associated with [...] and [...]
shrinking can be reduced by [...] in the elderly
A: impaired memory; dementia risks; aerobic exercise

Q: Example of the role of the hippocampus on memory:
[...]
A: Association of the smell of pie with thanksgiving dinners

Q: Damage to the hippocampus means [...] new memories, [...] old memories
A: inability to form; still can access the

Q: roles of the amygdala:
[...]
attaching [...] to memories
determines [...]
A: emotional responses; emotions; strength of memories - depending on emotional impact

Q: Damage to the amygdala results in :
[...]
[...] when BILATERAL damage
A: Reduced fear and aggression; Cannot interpret facial expressions and emotions

Q: There are [...] of the amygdala
A: two bulbs
Back Extra: one on each side of the head

Q: role of the hypothalamus:
to [...]
A: maintain bodily homeostasis

Q: Two mechanisms of hypothalamic control over the body:
1. direct - [...]
2. indirect - [...]
A: controlling the outputs of the endocrine and the ANS; altering motivational behaviors

Q: retinal light interacts with the hypothalamus at the [...] to control [...]
A: suprachiasmatic nucleus; the sleep cycle

Q: inputs paths into the hypothalamus:
[...] info, [...], [...]
A: Sensory; light; blood

Q: Outputs of the hypothalamus:
the [...] for endocrine control
The [...] for ANS control
A: Ant and Post pituitary; brain stem and spinal chord

Q: Hypothalamus connects to the anterior pituitary via the [...], and exert control via [...] that are secreted by [...] of the hypothalamus
A: Hypothalamic Hypophyseal portal; hormones; neurosecretory cells

Q: connection between theh hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary via the [...]
Hormones released by the posterior pituitary are synthesized in the [...] (within the [...]
A: magnocellular neurons; magnocellular cell bodies; hypothalalmus)

Q: hormones release from the posterior and anterior pituitary differ in that only [...]
A: the anterior pituitary synthesizes them locally.

Q: The posterior pituitary hormones are:
[...]
[...]
A: Oxytocin; ADH aka Vasopressin

The anterior pituitary hormones are:
Growth hormone
TSH
LS and FSH
Prolactin
ACTH

How does the hypothalamus regulate temperature?
secrete TSH from the anterior Pit. stimulates thyroxine from the thyroid gland (direct) and motivates putting on more clothing (indirect)

How does the hypothalamus control blood pressure?
ADH (vasopressin) from the posterior Pit. causes dilation or constriction of blood vessels (direct) and salt intake (indirect)

How does the hypothalamus control reproduction?
LH and FSH from the anterior pit. alter menstruation and pregnancy (direct) and change mating/parental behavior (indirect)

Q: how does the hypothalamus alter metabolism and feeding:
Altering the [...] and [...] levels. (direct) and [...] (indirect)
A: thyroxine; leptin (from the adipose); search for food

Q: how does the hypothalamus control stress:
[...] from the [...] alters [...] levels by the adrenal gland
A: ACTH; anterior pit.; cortisol

how does the hypothalamus alter the circadian rhythm:
change melatonin from the pineal gland secretion
ADH, ACTH levels

mechanism behind fevers:
set point is raised higher than normal , hypothalamus makes you "feel cold" to increase body temperature --> better immune defense at higher temperature

Q: pyrogens are substances that [...]
examples are [...] and [...]
A: cause fever; interleukins from body; lipopolysaccharides from bacteria

Q: advantages of feed-forward in homeostasis:
1. [...]
2. [...]
A: improves speed of response; minimizes the fluctuations in the measured variable

Q: example of feed forward in homeostasis:
[...] before [...], put on clothes
A: sensing the cold weather; body temperature is allowed to drop